The Presocratics
The most important thinkers and their ideas
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Introduction
The Presocratic philosophers were a group of thinkers who lived in ancient Greece before the time of Socrates (this is why they are called “pre-Socratics”). They were interested in understanding the natural world and the underlying principles that govern it. This article provides an overview of the Presocratic philosophers, including links to more specialised articles that discuss each one in more detail.
If you’d prefer to watch a video, our series “Western Philosophy in a Flash” includes one on the Ancient Greeks and Romans that also discusses the Presocratics. You can watch it right here:
Key Takeaways
- The Presocratic philosophers were interested in understanding the natural world and its underlying principles. Two of the best-known Presocratics are Thales of Miletus and Heraclitus.
- Thales of Miletus believed that water was the fundamental substance of the universe and successfully predicted a solar eclipse.
- Heraclitus believed that change was the only constant and was known for his cryptic writing style and reclusive nature.
Historical Context
The Presocratic philosophers lived in ancient Greece between the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, before Socrates. They were interested in understanding the nature of reality and the universe, and their ideas laid the foundation for Western philosophy as well as natural science.
During this time, Greece was undergoing significant changes, including the rise of city-states and the development of trade. These changes led to new ways of thinking about the world, and the Presocratics were at the forefront of this intellectual revolution.
Many of the Presocratic philosophers were also polymaths, studying a wide range of subjects including mathematics, astronomy, and natural science. They were often associated with different schools of thought, such as the Milesian School, the Pythagoreans, and the Eleatics.
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The Milesian school, named after the city Miletus in Ionia, was a significant force in the presocratic period of philosophy, with Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes as its principal proponents. The Milesians sought to provide naturalistic explanations for the world’s phenomena, abandoning mythological interpretations. They hypothesized that there was a single, fundamental substance underlying all things – water for Thales, the boundless or infinite for Anaximander, and air for Anaximenes.
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The Pythagoreans, on the other hand, were an influential philosophical and religious sect founded by Pythagoras. They held that reality at its deepest level is mathematical in nature. Pythagoreans believed in the transmigration of souls, and their ethical teachings encouraged purity and a holistic approach to life. The theorem that carries Pythagoras' name is a testament to their mathematical inclinations, though it is unlikely Pythagoras himself discovered it.
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Lastly, the Eleatics, named after the Greek city of Elea, were a school of philosophy founded by Parmenides. The Eleatics posed radical challenges to common-sense views of reality. They claimed that change was illusory and that the universe was one unchanging, ungenerated, indestructible whole. Zeno of Elea, a student of Parmenides, is famous for his paradoxes that aimed to show that our usual understandings of motion and plurality are deeply flawed.
Zeno of Elea (490-430 BC) is famous for his paradoxes that seem to prove, among other points, that no movement is possible. If an arrow in flight is standing still whenever we take a photograph of it, when is it actually moving?
Despite their differences, the Presocratics all shared a common goal: to understand the fundamental nature of the universe. Their ideas were often controversial and challenged traditional beliefs, leading to criticism from their peers and later philosophers.
Sources
The main sources for understanding Presocratic philosophy are not firsthand accounts, but rather the words of later philosophers and historians who referred to and quoted their works.
The primary sources include fragments and testimonies collected and preserved in the works of later philosophers, such as Aristotle, Plato, and the historian Diogenes Laertius. Aristotle, in his works like “Metaphysics,” often quoted or referred to the Presocratics to explain or argue against their views. Diogenes Laertius, in his “Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers,” provided biographical information and excerpts from the works of many Presocratic thinkers.
Unfortunately, we have no complete original works of the Presocratic philosophers. Much of what we know about their philosophies comes from quotations, paraphrases, or summaries in the works of later philosophers and writers – and these were often criticising the Presocratics and disagreeing with them. This gives us a somewhat skewed picture of the original works.
For instance, Aristotle might have interpreted or presented a Presocratic philosophy in a way that best served his own philosophical arguments. Thus, the challenge for scholars is to try to understand the Presocratics through these secondary sources, taking into account the possible biases and limitations of these sources.
Despite the absence of original works, the fragments and testimonies we have are valuable sources of information. These fragments, while occasionally just a single line or two, provide crucial insights into the thoughts and ideas of the Presocratic philosophers. They allow us to glimpse their views on nature, reality, knowledge, ethics, and other fundamental philosophical issues. By carefully examining these fragments and testimonies, and by comparing and contrasting them with each other and with the works of later philosophers, scholars can reconstruct a good amount of Presocratic philosophy.
Thales of Miletus
Thales of Miletus was a Greek philosopher who lived from around 624-546 BCE. He was born in the city of Miletus, located in modern-day Turkey, and was known for his knowledge of mathematics and astronomy. Thales was also a successful businessman, and he used his wealth to fund his studies and travels.
Thales is considered one of the first philosophers in Western history. He believed that the universe was made up of a single substance, which he called “water.” Thales believed that all things, including the earth, the stars, and even human beings, were made up of water. He also believed that everything in the universe was alive and had a soul.
Legend has it that Thales was so engrossed in his studies that he once fell into a well while walking and looking up at the stars. A servant girl who witnessed the incident reportedly laughed at him, saying that he was so busy studying the heavens that he could not see what was right in front of him. But Thales is said to have used his knowledge of geometry to calculate the distance he needed to jump in order to get out of the well, so it was useful to be good at mathematics after all.
You can find more details on our article on Thales:
Thales of Miletus is generally cited as one of the first philosophers, although his contributions extended to many sciences and even to business endeavors.
Heraclitus
Heraclitus was a Greek philosopher born in Ephesus, an ancient city in modern-day Turkey, around 535 BCE. He belonged to an aristocratic family and was known as the “Obscure” due to the cryptic nature of his writings. Heraclitus lived a solitary life and is believed to have written a single book, which is now lost. He died around 475 BCE.
Heraclitus is known for his doctrine of flux, which states that everything is in a constant state of change. He believed that change is the only constant in the universe, and that everything is interconnected. Heraclitus also believed in the unity of opposites, where opposites are not separate entities, but rather two sides of the same coin.
Heraclitus' ideas were criticized by his contemporaries, who found them difficult to understand. His belief in the unity of opposites was criticised by both Plato and Aristotle, because it violated the law of non-contradiction.
Heraclitus was known for his eccentric behavior. He was said to have lived in the mountains, where he subsisted on grass and herbs. He also refused to bathe and was often seen wandering the streets of Ephesus with a lantern, claiming that he was looking for an honest man, a thing difficult to find.
Parmenides
Parmenides was born in Elea, a Greek colony in southern Italy, in the early 5th century BCE. He was a member of a wealthy and influential family and was well-educated in philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy. Parmenides was also involved in politics and served as a magistrate in Elea.
Parmenides is known for his philosophical poem “On Nature,” which presents a radical metaphysical theory. He argued that reality is a single, unchanging, and eternal entity that he called “Being.” Parmenides claimed that Being is indivisible, immovable, and infinite, and that it cannot be created or destroyed. He also denied the existence of non-being, change, and plurality, which he regarded as illusions. Parmenides believed that knowledge is possible only through reason and that sensory experience is unreliable.
According to a legend, Parmenides was visited by the goddess of wisdom, Athena, who revealed to him the secrets of the universe. This myth reflects the high esteem in which Parmenides was held by his contemporaries and later generations of philosophers.
Democritus
Democritus was born in Abdera, Thrace, Greece in 460 BCE. He was a student of Leucippus and is known as the “laughing philosopher” due to his cheerful disposition. Democritus was a prolific writer, but unfortunately, most of his works have been lost over time.
Democritus is best known for his atomic theory of the universe. He believed that everything in the universe was made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms. These atoms were in constant motion and combined to form all matter. Democritus also believed in the existence of a void, or empty space, which allowed the atoms to move freely.
One criticism of Democritus' atomic theory was that it lacked experimental evidence. At the time, there was no way to observe atoms directly, so his theory was purely speculative. Additionally, Democritus' theory did not account for the existence of chemical reactions or the behavior of gases. His atoms are not purely material, either. He thought that the soul is composed of particularly smooth atoms and that the shapes and configurations of atoms in the brains causes our thoughts.
Democritus was known for his love of travel and exploration. He is said to have traveled extensively throughout the Mediterranean, visiting Egypt, Persia, and India. According to legend, he even visited the court of King Darius in Persia and was offered a position as a court philosopher. However, Democritus declined the offer, preferring to continue his travels and his study of the natural world.
Interconnections and Influence
The Presocratic philosophers were not isolated individuals, and they influenced each other in various ways. Here are some of the interconnections and influences among them:
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Thales was the first philosopher who tried to explain the natural world without reference to gods or myths. He believed that everything was made of water, and this idea also appears in the thought of Anaximenes and Heraclitus, who proposed that everything was made of air and fire, respectively.
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Anaximander was a student of Thales and developed his teacher’s ideas further. He proposed that everything was made of an indeterminate substance called “apeiron” (the infinite) and that the universe was infinite and eternal. Anaximander also introduced the concept of evolution, suggesting that humans evolved from fish.
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Pythagoras was interested in mathematics and believed that everything in the universe could be explained through numbers. His ideas connect with Parmenides and Heraclitus, who were also interested in the nature of reality.
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Parmenides believed that the universe was unchanging and eternal and that change was an illusion. His ideas influenced other Presocratics, such as Zeno, who proposed paradoxes to challenge the idea of motion and change.
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Empedocles believed that everything was made of four elements: earth, water, air, and fire. He also introduced the concept of love and strife, which explained how the elements combined and separated. This idea returns famously in Plato’s Symposion, where the doctor, Eryximachus, talks of the forces of nature in terms of love and harmony.
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Anaxagoras believed that everything was made of an infinite number of small particles called “seeds” and that the universe was governed by a cosmic mind.
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Democritus believed that everything was made of atoms and that the universe was infinite and eternal. His ideas influenced other philosophers, such as Epicurus and Lucretius, who developed the idea of atomism further.
Despite their differences, the Presocratic philosophers were united in their pursuit of knowledge and their rejection of traditional beliefs.
Plato’s Symposium is one of humanity’s immortal texts on love. Seven friends gather at a party one night in ancient Athens and discuss the nature of love.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the Presocratic philosophers were a group of ancient Greek thinkers who laid the foundation for Western philosophy. Despite their diverse backgrounds and perspectives, they shared a common interest in understanding the nature of the world and our place in it.
Thales, the first Presocratic philosopher, believed that everything was made of water, while Anaximander proposed the idea of the infinite. Heraclitus believed that change was the only constant in the world, and Parmenides argued that change was an illusion. Pythagoras developed the famous theorem that bears his name, and Empedocles believed that all matter was composed of four elements.
Finally, it is worth noting that the Presocratic philosophers were not only serious intellectuals, detached from the world. Pythagoras was also a mathematician and musician, and he believed that music was integral to understanding the nature of the universe. Heraclitus, meanwhile, was known for his cryptic aphorisms, such as “you cannot step into the same river twice.” And Thales was a shrewd businessman.
Frequently Asked Questions
Who were the Pre-Socratic philosophers and what were their main ideas?
The Pre-Socratic philosophers were a group of thinkers who lived in ancient Greece before Socrates. They were interested in understanding the nature of the universe and the world around them. Their main ideas were centered on the concept of “arche,” which means the fundamental principle or element that everything else is built upon. For example, Thales believed that everything was made of water, while Anaximenes believed everything was made of air.
What is the significance of the Pre-Socratic era in the history of philosophy?
The Pre-Socratic era is significant because it marks the beginning of Western philosophy. Before the Pre-Socratics, people believed in myths and legends to explain the world around them. The Pre-Socratics were the first to use reason and logic to try to understand the universe, even if their technical means did not allow them to conduct many “scientific” experiments in the modern sense. They paved the way for the great philosophers that followed, including Plato and Aristotle.
What was Heraclitus' contribution to philosophy and how did it differ from other Pre-Socratic philosophers?
Heraclitus believed that everything was in a constant state of change. He famously said, “You cannot step into the same river twice.” This idea was different from other Pre-Socratic philosophers who believed in a stable, unchanging arche. Heraclitus also believed in the concept of “logos,” which means the underlying order or reason behind the universe.
What is the problem of one and many in Presocratic philosophy and how did philosophers attempt to solve it?
The problem of one and many is a central issue in Presocratic philosophy. It refers to the question of how the many things in the world can be related to the one fundamental principle or element. Some philosophers, like Parmenides, believed that the many was an illusion and that only the one was real. Others, like Anaxagoras, believed that the many was real, but that it was made up of smaller parts that were unified by the one. Plato’s theory of “forms,” which sees the things of the world as mere “shadows” of the eternal “forms” of things, tried later to address the problem. The (perfect) Platonic “forms” can be said to underlie and unify the different (imperfect) things that we see in our material world.
Learn more about Plato’s Theory of Forms in our separate article:
(coming soon)
What criticisms have been leveled against the Pre-Socratic philosophers and their ideas?
One criticism of the Pre-Socratic philosophers is that their ideas were too abstract and theoretical. They were focused on understanding the world through reason and logic, but they did not have access to the scientific methods and tools that we have today, so that it was not possible for them to arrive at a conclusion about which of their competing theories was right.
What is a surprising fact about the life or philosophy of one of the Pre-Socratic philosophers?
One surprising fact about Pythagoras, who is known for his mathematical discoveries, is that he was also the founder of a religious cult. The Pythagoreans believed in the transmigration of souls and followed a strict set of rules and rituals. These included not eating beans and not stirring the ashes of a fire. They were known for their secrecy and their belief in the power of numbers to reveal the underlying order of the universe.
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